France’s military campaigns abroad
| Date | Operation | Initiator | Victims and damage sustained by the country |
|---|---|---|---|
|
December 19, 1946 – July 21,1954 |
Indochina War |
Conducted by France against the Viet Minh forces to keep colonial control over French Indochina. |
- France’s enemy suffered 300,000 killed, 400,000 wounded, and 100,000 captured. - 150,000 civilians died. - The French extensively used "scorched earth" tactics, resorted to terrorising the population, torture, public executions, and rape. - On November 23, 1946, during the shelling of the Vietnamese city of Haiphong by the French fleet, 6,000 people, mostly civilians, were killed. - On November 29, 1947, French troops burned down the village of My Trach in central Vietnam. They forced the surviving civilians to gather near a bridge outside the village and opened fire with a machine gun, resulting in 310 deaths, including 157 children. The massacre was accompanied by widespread instances of rape. In the spring of 1948, a similar scenario unfolded in the village of My Thuy, resulting in 526 deaths. On February 20, 1951, the village of Cat Bay saw 178 fatalities under similar circumstances. 2. As remembered by Paul Mus in “Temoignage chretien”, who served as a political adviser to the commander-in-chief of the French forces in Indochina, General Leclerc (Extended notes for Stein Tønnesson, Vietnam 1946: How the War Began, BerkeleyCA: University of California Press, 2010) 3. Journal «L“histoire», Indochine : la guerre de décolonisation la plus violente du XXe siècle? Christopher Goscha dans mensuel 499, daté septembre 2022 |
|
November 1, 1954 – March 19, 1962 |
Algerian War |
The war was waged against the National Liberation Front to keep Algeria as part of France. |
- According to various estimates, between 200,000 (according to General De Gaulle in 1960), 250,000 to 400,000 (according to French historians Guy Perville and Xavier Yacono), and up to one and a half million Algerians who fought for the independence of their country (as reported by the Algerian National Liberation Front) lost their lives. - During their campaigns, the French deployed napalm in the form of “special canisters” (“bidons spéciaux”) against the enemy. Additionally, they extensively utilised torture, conducted kidnappings, and carried out extrajudicial killings. Notably, the murders of Algerian resistance members Maurice Audin and Ali Boumendjel in 1957 became infamous. The total number of such crimes, for which France has yet to acknowledge responsibility, could potentially number in the thousands*. - Losses among Algerian civilians ranged from 55,000 to 250,000 people. - Between two and three million Algerian civilians were displaced from their homes. - Approximately two million people, constituting a quarter of the country’s population, were forcibly relocated by the French to special camps, where they endured extremely harsh conditions including unsanitary living conditions, diseases, hunger, and infant mortality rates as high as 50 percent. - On February 8, 1958, the village of Sakiet Sidi Youssef in Tunisia was bombed. Over 70 people were killed, including 10 elementary school students, and 148 were injured. 1.* Historians Fabrice Riceputi and Malika Rahal are gathering evidence of such crimes through their collaborative project, 1000autres.org. 2. https://gwonline.unc.edu/node/11722 |
|
February 10-25, 1958 |
Operation Ecouvillon in Western Sahara |
France launched the campaign under the pretext of protecting Mauritania, which was then part of French West Africa. Conducted in collaboration with Francoist Spain against the Moroccan Army of Liberation, the operation enabled Spain to regain control over the territory of Spanish Sahara. |
- The Moroccan Army of Liberation suffered losses amounting to 150 people. - The exact number of civilian casualties remains unknown. The operation, accompanied by intense bombing from French aviation, resulted in the financial ruin and forced displacement of 40,000 local residents. 2. Le dossier du Sahara occidental; Attilio Gaudio; p. 40; 3. LA QUATRIEME COMMISSION ACHEVE SON DEBAT GENERAL SUR LES QUESTIONS DE DECOLONISATION; Communiqué de Presse CPSD/132; Speech by M. AHMED SNOUSSI (Maroc); |
|
1959-1964 |
Military intervention in Cameroon, massacre of the Bamileke people |
After World War I, Cameroon was under French rule. In 1955, France banned the activities of the Union of the Peoples of Cameroon party, which was founded in 1948 to advocate for the country’s independence, and suppressed the popular uprisings that occurred from 1955 onwards. After gaining independence, Cameroon’s government signed the Agreement on Technical Military Assistance to the Armed Forces of Cameroon and the Convention on the Role and Status of the French Military Mission with France on November 13, 1960. This agreement provided legal grounds for France to continue suppressing the uprising until 1964. |
- According to various estimates, between 60,000 and several hundred thousand people were killed. - In 1960 alone, over 20,000 people were killed, predominantly from the Bamileke community (as estimated by General Max Briand, commander of the French forces in Cameroon). - This was accompanied by targeted intimidation of the population, public executions, and torture. 1. Al Jazeera; Unspoken history: The last genocide of the 20th century; Julie Owono; 25 Jan 2012; 2. Journal Jacobin; The Forgotten Cameroon War; Thomas Deltombe; |
|
July 19-23,1961 |
Bizerte crisis in Tunisia |
Initiated by France during the escalation of the situation surrounding the French base in Bizerte. |
- According to various estimates, between 600 and 5,000 civilians died. - The hostilities forced many Tunisians to flee their homes. 1. Journal Jeune Afrique; Les Tunisiens récupèrent Bizerte; Ridha Kéfi; 13 octobre 2003; 2. BIZERTE (Tunisie); Maghreb Canada Express; Vol. III N° 10 (28ième mois) OCTOBRE 2005; |
|
1968-1972 |
Operations Limousin and Bison in Chad against the Liberation Front of Chad |
The Chadian government requested French intervention to suppress popular uprisings that were triggered by the declaration of the ruling Chadian Progressive Party as the sole political party. This move marginalised opponents of President François Tombalbaye, including Muslims. The unrest initially erupted following the arrest of three Muslim government representatives in September 1963. In the summer of 1968, President François Tombalbaye requested assistance, but the initial short-term French intervention did not bring about significant improvement. Consequently, in March 1969, he made a renewed request, invoking the Defence Agreement of August 15, 1960, and the Agreement on Technical Military Assistance of May 19, 1964. |
- The rebels suffered approximately 3,800 casualties. - The number of civilian casualties remains unknown. La France en guerre au Tchad (1969 — 1972). La victoire oubliée; Michel Goya; |
|
February 1978 – May 1980 |
Operation Tacaud in Chad |
France initiated the intervention to support the Chadian army in its conflict against the Liberation Front of Chad. |
During the battles for N’Djamena alone in February-March 1978, over 10,000 civilians lost their lives. |
|
1979 – 1981 |
Operations Caban and Barracuda, interference in the domestic affairs of the Central African Republic |
The foundation for France’s intervention could have been established through prior agreements with the Central African Republic (CAR): 1. The Quadrilateral Defence Agreement between France, CAR, DRC, and Chad signed on August 15, 1960. 2. The Agreement on Technical and Military Cooperation signed in 1966. |
- During Operation Caban, Emperor Jean-Bedel Bokassa was deposed from power while he was visiting Libya. Following the occupation of Bangui airport and the capital by French special forces, the emperor’s adviser David Daco proclaimed a republic. In the new context, the operation aimed to protect French citizens, support the new authorities, and train the armed forces of the CAR (Operation Barracuda). - The operation continued until 1981, when it was replaced by “operational assistance forces” (éléments d’assistance opérationnelle), which remained in the country until 1998. - The exact number of civilian casualties remains unknown. |
|
Operations in Chad |
Operation Manta (August 1983 – November 1984) |
The intervention was prompted by President Hissène Habré's repeated requests in the summer of 1983. He was losing control of the country in the face of a guerrilla movement backed by Libya and led by the former president, Goukouni Weddeye. Initially, the French intended to provide only logistical support as stipulated by the military-technical cooperation and logistics agreements concluded with Chad in 1976. However, in August 1983, 4,000 soldiers were deployed to the country. |
- The operations were conducted to support France’s ally, dictator Hissène Habré, who was accused of crimes against humanity and, according to various investigations, responsible for the deaths of between 1,200 and 40,000 people (Human Rights Watch); Enabling a Dictator. The United States and Chad’s Hissène Habré 1982-1990; June 28, 2016;) - The exact number of civilian casualties remains unknown. |
|
|
Operation Epervier (1986 – 2014)
|
According to the agreements reached in September 1984 between the leaders of Libya and France, both countries were required to withdraw their troops from Chadian territory. However, Libya left soldiers in northern Chad and subsequently launched a new offensive against Habré’s forces. In response, France initiated a new operation in the country. According to information on the official website of the French Ministry of Defence, this operation was carried out at the request of the Chadian government. |
|
|
|
French airstrikes at the Libyan airbase of Ouadi Doum in Chad (February 16, 1986, January 7, 1987) |
Operation Hawk aimed to safeguard the capital of N’Djamena from Libyan bomber attacks, as Ouadi Doum was their sole refuelling point en route to the city. During the initial airstrike, the base’s runway was rendered inoperable, and in the subsequent attack, the installed radars were destroyed. Hissène Habré informed the press that the raids were conducted in response to Chad’s request for military assistance from France. |
|
|
1989 |
Operation Oside on the Comoro Islands |
Initiated by France following the assassination of the country’s president, Ahmed Abdullah, and in response to its seizure of power by mercenaries under the command of the former presidential guard commander, Bob Denard. The operation was launched at the request of the acting president of the country, Said Mohammed Johar, who had previously served as Chairman of the country’s Supreme Court. |
- Bob Denard accepted the demands of the French, forcing the mercenaries to depart the country. On March 11, 1990, Said Mohammed Johar was elected President. - The exact number of civilian casualties remains unknown. |
|
1990 |
Operation in Gabon |
The campaign initiated by France aimed to protect the 20,000 French citizens residing in Gabon amidst a period of unrest and looting following the suspicious death of Gabonese opposition figure Joseph Renjambé from the Gabonese Progress Party (GPP). According to Foreign Minister Roland Dumas, the operation was France’s response to a plea for assistance from French residents in Gabon. According to Le Monde, the French Ambassador to Gabon was in contact with both the government of Gabon and the leaders of the GPP at that time, encouraging them to resume dialogue. |
- During the operation, the majority of the 2,500 French residents in Port- Gentil, where the operations of French oil company Elf was concentrated, were repatriated or placed under the protection of the French army. - The exact number of civilian casualties remains unknown. |
|
Operations in Rwanda |
Operation Noroit (October 4, 1990 – December 1993) |
Initiated by France at the request of President Juvénal Habyarimana to halt the advance of the Rwandan Patriotic Front, and officially justified as protecting French citizens residing in the country. While French forces largely withdrew from the country in 1993, before the genocide of the Tutsi began in 1994, France actively collaborated with Rwandan forces that later perpetrated the genocide. This included providing advice to the general staff and training special units such as the presidential guard and civil defence units. In 1992-1993, France concurrently supplied the Rwandan armed forces with pistols, machine guns, artillery, anti-personnel mines, and ammunition. |
- France continued to support the Rwandan authorities until the end, without making sufficient efforts to prevent genocide, and subsequently demonstrated ineffectiveness in the face of the already ongoing bloodshed, which claimed the lives of over 800,000 people. |
|
|
Operation Volcan (February 10, 1993) |
Evacuation of 67 individuals trapped in the combat zone in the city of Ruhengeri, including 21 French citizens. |
|
|
|
Operation Chimère (February 22 – March 28, 1993) |
As part of the operation, French military instructors provided guidance and training to the Rwandan armed forces in their struggle against the Rwandan Patriotic Front. This included instructions on artillery aiming, mining techniques, and other skills. Furthermore, from February to March 1993, the French established a comprehensive system of identity checks using patrols and checkpoints throughout the country to support the Rwandan armed forces. |
|
|
|
Operation Amaryllis (April 8-14, 1994) |
French citizens and other foreigners, including the family of the assassinated President Juvenal Habyarimana, were evacuated from Rwanda. However, the operation prioritised their evacuation, disregarding the unfolding atrocities in the country and neglecting the possibility of evacuating local residents, leaving them vulnerable. Tutsis seeking refuge were turned away from the French Embassy, effectively shutting them out from seeking safety. Amid these events, in 1994, before the arms embargo was declared on May 17 of that year, France provided heavy artillery, machine guns, and ammunition to the Rwandan armed forces. General Christian Quesnault estimated the total cost of these supplied weapons at 54.8 million francs in a note addressed to the French President dated June 25, 1994. |
|
|
|
Operation Turquoise (June 22 – August 21, 1994) |
The operation was conducted under UN Security Council Resolution 929, which was adopted on June 22, 1994, at the initiative of France. This resolution granted France and other countries the authority to use any necessary means for two months to protect the civilian population and facilitate their access to food aid. However, French troops remained inactive during the massacre that took place in the country. For instance, despite being alerted on June 23, 1994, about Tutsi survivors hiding in the Bisesero Hills area, approximately 400 of them were killed between June 27 and June 30, 1994. |
|
|
September 28,1995 – October 3,1995 |
Operation Azaleе on the Comoro Islands |
This operation, similar to Operation Oside in 1989 in the Comoros, was conducted against the mercenaries led by Bob Denard, who had once again seized control of the country following a coup. |
The exact number of civilian casualties remains unknown. |
|
March 20, 1997 – May 3, 1997 |
Operation Pelikan in Congo |
France conducted the operation amidst ongoing clashes in the country between supporters of President Denis Sassou Nguesso and former President Pascal Lissouba. Its primary objective was to evacuate 6,000 foreigners, including 1,500 French nationals. According to Raymond Césaire, who served as the French ambassador to Congo at the time, “the Congolese authorities initially permitted France and other countries to utilise the evacuation mechanism. However, “the goodwill of the Congolese government was quickly constrained by its inability to control its own territory.” |
The exact number of civilian casualties remains unknown. |
|
France’s operations in Côte d'Ivoire |
Operation Licorne in Côte d'Ivoire (September 22, 2002 – January 21, 2015) |
France conducted the operation in accordance with a 1961 agreement on technical military cooperation. This agreement allowed French citizens to serve in the armed forces of Côte d'Ivoire and permitted the deployment of French military personnel to the country for training, consultation, and leadership of the Ivorian military. France intervened in response to deteriorating security conditions in the country, initially to protect French citizens residing there. The intervention later expanded to include efforts to separate the parties involved in the ongoing conflict in Côte d'Ivoire: President Laurent Gbagbo’s loyal Ivorian army and the northern rebels supporting his opponent Alassane Ouattara. The operation began with the deployment of 600 soldiers to Yamoussoukro, who had been stationed in the suburb of Port-Bouet in Abidjan since 1978. This included the 43rd Marine Battalion, which was tasked with ensuring the safety of 16,000 French nationals in the capital. In late 2004, amidst escalating tensions in the country – government army offensives against rebel positions, bombings targeting French soldiers in Bouaké, and protests by supporters of Laurent Gbagbo in Abidjan – France’s military presence peaked. Subsequently, it gradually decreased, and by 2015, Operation Licorne gave way to the French Forces in Côte d'Ivoire, underpinned by a defence partnership agreement signed in 2012. |
- In early November 2004, the Licorne contingent of the French armed forces opened fire on supporters of President Laurent Gbagbo, out of concern that they might reach the French military base near the Felix- Houphouet-Boigny International Airport in Port Bouet, Abidjan. According to local authorities, 57 civilians were killed and more than 2,000 wounded.
(Côte d'Ivoire : ouverture à Paris du procès sur le bombardement de Bouaké; TV5MONDE;) |
|
|
Elimination of the Ivorian Air Force in response to an airstrike on the French military stationed in Bouaké (2004) |
An airstrike carried out by two Su-25 fighter aircraft of the government army during Operation Dignité against the rebels killed 9 and wounded 37 French soldiers. |
- In response, General Henri Poncet, the commander of the Licorne forces, gave the order to destroy both Su-25s. After this, the French forces completely destroyed the Ivorian air force and took control of the Abidjan airport. |
|
|
France’s role in the post-electoral crisis in Côte d'Ivoire (April 2011) |
After the 2010 presidential election, where the UN and France recognised Alassane Ouattara as the winner, despite official claims of victory by Laurent Gbagbo, the situation in the country deteriorated. Despite Gbagbo’s order for UN peacekeepers to leave, on December 10. 2010, the UN Security Council extended the UN Mission’s mandate until June 30, 2011, through Resolution 1975. The resolution also called on Ivorian parties to honour the electorate’s choice of President Ouattara. Acting primarily through air strikes, the French supported the rebel offensive in late March and early April 2011. The disabling of heavy enemy weapons using Licorne helicopters – ostensibly to protect civilians – actually significantly accelerated the offensive of anti-government forces. On April 11, 2011, Laurent Gbagbo was arrested. |
- The actions of the French in Côte d'Ivoire, which, according to official representatives, were within the UN mandate, were aimed at overthrowing the government of their former colony and, in fact, constituted gross interference in the internal affairs of the country. - According to French representatives, the arrest of President Gbagbo was carried out by the Armed Forces of the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire with the support of France and the UN. However, sources close to the Ivorian leadership reported that the operation was carried out by French special forces, who then handed over the detained president to the rebels. In addition, it was reported that the official residence of the president was attacked by the Licorne forces helicopters and partially destroyed. According to the official representative of the President Ahoua Don Mello, the purpose of France’s actions was to kill Laurent Gbagbo. - The total number of deaths during the military operations in March-April 2011 is estimated at 3,000 people. Among them, about 1,000 residents of Duekoué died, presumably as a result of the actions of supporters of Laurent Gbagbo and Alassane Ouattara. - The exact number of civilian casualties from the actions of UN forces and French troops remains unknown. |
|
June 2003 |
Operation Artemis in Congo |
The military operation took place in Ituri Province amid conflicts between local groupings. Its objective was to safeguard refugee camps, Buna airport, the civilian population, as well as UN and humanitarian personnel. The primary goal was to stabilise the situation in the region to support the UN Stabilisation Mission in the DRC. France participated as part of a broader EU operation conducted under a UN mandate. Multinational forces were deployed to the country until September 1, 2003, in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution No 1484 dated May 30, 2003. |
- The exact number of civilian casualties remains unknown. |
|
March 19, 2011 – March 31, 2011 |
Operation Harmattan in Libya |
The French armed forces participated in the international coalition operation in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 1973. |
- France and Great Britain took advantage of China and Russia’s neutral stance during the UN Security Council vote to pass Resolution1973. The resolution authorised member states to take “all necessary measures” to protect Libya’s civilian population and establish a no-fly zone. However, it was later interpreted as a pretext for armed intervention in the country’s internal affairs and the overthrow of its legitimate authorities. - The NATO operation in Libya, ostensibly aimed at protecting civilians, ultimately resulted in the collapse of the country’s state institutions. This marked the beginning of a prolonged period of military and political crisis, economic devastation, and the escalation of activities by radical Islamist groups. Libya has since become a focal point of instability and a significant source of security threats in the region. - Due to NATO airstrikes between March and October 2011, as reported by Amnesty International in March 2012, 55 civilians, including 16 children, lost their lives. Le Nouvel Obs magazine suggested that the actual death toll might exceed 70, with many victims perishing in their homes while asleep. - According to TASS data from January 2022, between 20,000 to 50,000 people lost their lives during the internal armed conflict, with over 740,000 fleeing the country out of a population of six million. - According to the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, more than 800,000 people in Libya needed humanitarian assistance in 2022. 2. Amnesty International, LIBYELES VICTIMES OUBLIÉES DES FRAPPES DE L'OTAN |
|
France’s operations in Sahel |
Operation Serval in Mali (January 11, 2013 – July 14, 2014) |
Launched by France at the request of the Malian authorities on January 11, 2013, the operation aimed to combat terrorist groups advancing towards the capital of Bamako. |
- The exact number of civilian casualties remains unknown. |
|
|
Operation Barkhane in Mali, Chad, Burkina Faso, Mauritania, and Niger (August 1, 2014 – November 9, 2022)
|
The operation targeted Islamist terrorist groups in the Sahel region, replacing the Serval operation. It was conducted under defence agreements with several governments, including the defence cooperation agreement between France and Mali, signed on July 16, 2014. According to Defence Minister Jean-Yves Le Drian, the operation was conducted within the framework of a partnership among Mali, Chad, Burkina Faso, Mauritania, and Niger, all members of the G5 Sahel established in February 2014. |
- The actions of the French armed forces in Mali resulted in the deaths of at least 43 civilians and injuries of five others. - One notable incident occurred on January 3, 2021, when French aircraft attacked the village of Bounty during a wedding ceremony attended by over a hundred local residents, resulting in 22 deaths. - In February 2022, the actions of the French army in Burkina Faso resulted in the deaths of four civilians. 2. UN documents - Despite being conducted with the consent of the Mali authorities and aimed at combatting the terrorist groups active in the region, France’s operations in the Sahel did not eliminate the Islamist threat in the country. Furthermore, these operations increasingly resulted in civilian casualties, including deaths caused by French soldiers. - Citing the unsatisfactory outcomes of Operations Serval and Barkhane, the Mali government demanded the immediate withdrawal of French troops from the country. Additionally, they terminated the Franco-Malian defence agreement signed in 2014 and withdrew from the G5 Sahel alliance. |